Building on initial results from a survey conducted in 2024 by the AUTHLIB consortium in seven European countries (Austria, Czechia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, United Kingdom), Professor Radosław Markowski (SWPS University) published an article in the Polish newspaper Rzeczpospolita discussing the various ideological configurations of illiberalism in Europe.
In his article, Professor Markowski argues that the term populism is widely misused and misunderstood. In his view, populism has become a vague, catch-all label applied to an overly broad range of political movements and leaders. This dilutes its meaning and obscures real threats to liberal democracy. He emphasizes that populism, when correctly defined, is a weak ideology centered around a simplistic “people vs. elites” narrative, hostility to institutions, and aversion to complexity and expertise—not just any anti-establishment or controversial political stance.
The survey also found that populism, illiberalism, and authoritarianism are distinct but interrelated threats to liberal democracy. Analysis of the survey data identified seven distinct “anti-liberal” constructs—two types of populism, three types of illiberalism, and two types of authoritarianism. These are not interchangeable; they differ in intensity and manifestation, and understanding these nuances is key to effectively diagnosing the threats to liberal democracy. Illiberalism and authoritarianism, not populism, are the more direct and dangerous threats.
Professor Markowski warns of a “salami tactic”—a gradual erosion of liberal democratic norms whereby the path from populism to authoritarianism is gradual and strategic. Populist parties may start by attacking elites and weakening institutional trust. Once in power, they shift toward illiberal policies, nationalism, and media control, eventually sliding into open authoritarianism if unchecked. He cites Hungary as a textbook example. Importantly, he argues, this progression depends on public attitudes and institutional resilience, not just political will.
Professor Markowski’s article showcasing initial results of AUTHLIB’s comprehensive survey is available HERE in Polish (behind paywall).
Source of image: Rzeczpospolita
